• Body Satisfaction Scale Questionnaire

Abstract

Measuring male body dissatisfaction: Factorial and construct validity of the Body Parts Satisfaction Scale for Men Given the centrality of body dissatisfaction in the manifestation of health risk behaviors (e.g., eating disorders, muscle dysmorphia) and psychological distress in men, the ability to measure it accurately is essential. Download Body Satisfaction Scale Pdf free. Body Satisfaction Scale (BSS): A 16-item, self-report questionnaire that measures body. Body image was assessed with the Body Parts Satisfaction Scale, which examined the 27 dissatisfaction people experienced with 24 aspects of their bodies. Apr 27, 2012. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Body Dissatisfaction subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory. The questionnaire also contained numerical codes to match and identify the participants. Body dissatisfaction. The Body Dissatisfaction subscale of the Eating Disorder.

Objective:

To determine body image satisfaction among newly entrant women students in a professional institution.

Materials and Methods:

A cross-sectional study using body image satisfaction described in words was undertaken, which also explored relationship with body mass index (BMI) and other selected co-variables such as socio-demographic details, overall satisfaction in life, and particularly in academic/professional life, current health status using 5-item based Likert scale. Height, weight, hip and waist circumference measurement was carried out using standard protocol. Data collection was carried through personal interview using pre-designed, pre-tested semi-structured interview schedule by female investigators during August-September 2010 and analysis carried out by computing percentages and Chi-square test.

Results:

Out of 96 study samples, 16.66%, 51.04%, and 32.29% girl students perceived their body image as fair, good and excellent, respectively while overall 13.54% were dissatisfied with their body image. The body image satisfaction had significant relationship with image perception (P<0.001), current general health status (P<0.001) and self weight assessment (P<0.001). Mother's education had a statistically significant (P=0.004) but negative relationship with outcome variable. Students with low weight (BMI <18.5 kg/m²) had a significantly higher (85.71%) prevalence of body image satisfaction while overweight students (BMI≤23 kg/m²) had a significantly higher (54.54%) prevalence of dissatisfaction (P<0.001).

Discussion:

High body image satisfaction is reported in this study and was found to be significantly related to anthropometric measurements. On an encouraging note, this level needs to be preserved for overall mental and healthy development of students. Proactive preventive measures could be initiated on personality development, acceptance of self and individual differences while maintaining optimum weight and active life style.

The concept of body image as a psychological phenomenon was initially established in 1935, by the Austrian psychiatrist Paul Ferdinand Schilder (1886-1940), who said that the mental images that individuals have of their own bodies explain the way their bodies are introduced to them. According to the psychiatrist, one's mental body image is established by senses, ideas and feelings that, most of the time, are unconscious. This representation is built and rebuilt throughout life.[,] Body image is a multidimensional dynamic construct that involves internal biological and psychological factors as well as external cultural and social determinants.[3,]

Individuals who perceive their bodies negatively with regard to culturally valued features may have low self-esteem, low satisfaction in life and feeling of inferiority and pose themselves at higher risk for depression, anxiety or eating disorders. At the highest level of dissatisfaction, this may result in significant impairment of social, educational and/or occupational functioning. Currently, beautiful is considered good and thinness is synonymous with beauty, which makes it valued by society while its opposite, obesity, is strongly rejected. Although the ideals of female beauty vary as a function of esthetical standards adopted at each time, studies show that women have tried to change their bodies to follow these standards.[5]

Obesity has been identified as one of the rising epidemic across globe with consequential rise of non-communicable diseases including disproportionate health care cost on individuals, family and society. According to latest WHO estimates, 14.4% (male) and 15% (female) adult aged 15 years and above are obese in the world.[6] More than half a billion adults (205 million men and 297 million women over the age of 20 years) world-wide were obese in 2008. The prevalence of overweight and obesity was highest in WHO regions of America and lowest in South-East Asia.[7]

Overweight children, adolescents, and adults generally have lower body esteem than do their normal-weight peers and this is especially true for females.[8] It is generally believed that body image distortion and related consequences is a western societal phenomenon however, it has made its presence felt into diverse culture including developing countries also. With the change in epidemiological shift, India is witnessing simultaneous manifestation of double burden of communicable and non-communicable disease with a challenging and daunting task for stakeholders to identify issues, resolve conflict, mobilize resources and overcome situation with innovative solution and strategies. Considering this background, a cross-sectional descriptive study sought to determine body image satisfaction, a hitherto underexplored arena in our setting. Using body satisfaction described in words, this study also investigated relationship with body mass index (BMI) and other selected co-variables.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study variables included body image satisfaction, overall satisfaction in life, and particularly in academic/professional life, current health status and body image perception through self rating on 5-items based Likert scale (poor, fair, good, very good and excellent). Other variables included were related to native place, type of family, social caste, marks obtained in qualifying exam (12^th class), education of mother and father, monthly family income, siblings and self assessment of weight into lean (underweight), normal, overweight/obese category. Attempt at changing weight was inquired, if undertaken during last one-year and whether meals were skipped as a method of dieting during last three months. Physical activity considered in present study was: 30 min of intense physical/sports activity that lead to large increase in breathing/heart rate and undertaken for atleast 4-5 days/week (regularly); 1-3 days/week (sometimes) and none.

Height, weight, hip and waist circumference measurements were carried out for each candidate using standard protocol under comfortable conditions after adequate rest in order to compute BMI (kg/m²) and waist/hip ratio, as applicable to Asian citizens.[] Body weight of the candidate wearing light clothing and without footwear was measured to the nearest 0.5 kg using a weighing scale; height was assessed to the nearest 0.1 cm by using a non elastic measuring tape with the participant standing erect against a wall, without shoes and the head looking straight. Midpoint of inferior margin of last rib and the crest of ilium was measured for waist circumference. The hip circumference was measured around the maximum circumference of the hips. Waist–hip ratio is related to the metabolic complications of obesity and criteria recommended by WHO, of absence of risk (<0.8) and risk of abdominal obesity (≤0.8), were followed. Hemoglobin status to determine presence/absence of anemia (<12 g/dl), as a routine health procedure investigated at the time of admission to institution, was also collected and recorded.

Considering feasibility, all available newly entrant female students undergoing professional courses and residing in women's hostel were contacted. It was proposed for complete enumeration, however, out of a total of 101 resident students, 2 declined to participate, 3 could not be contacted despite of two repeat visits and 96 (95.04%) consented to participate in this study. Data collection was carried through personal interview by the female investigator using pre-designed, pre-tested semi-structured interview schedules during August-September 2010 after taking informed consent of participants ensuring complete confidentiality in a non-judgmental manner and at their convenient time. Data management was done using MS Excel and analysis was carried out by computing descriptive and inferential statistic (Chi-square test) using software statistical package (SPSS ver. 16). For the purpose of analysis, P value of less than 0.05 was considered significant and some items of scale was grouped into a single entity such as poor and fair, into fair, and very good and excellent, into excellent.

RESULTS

Out of 96 students who participated, 20.83%, 35.41%, and 43.75% were associated with BDS, MBBS and nursing streams, respectively; 67.70% belonged to rural background; 71.87% lived in joint family system; 51.04%, 37.5%, and 11.45% secured <80%, between 80-90% and >90% marks in 12^th class. Mothers education of majority (54.16%) of participants was up to 12^th class, while majority (63.54%) of candidates fathers were atleast graduate; 41.66% had monthly family income between Rs. 20,000-40,000 followed by 38.54% with >Rs. 40,000; 40.62% had sibling as brother only, 5.20% as sister only while 54.16% had both, Table 1.

Nearly, 16 (16.66%), 49 (51.04%), and 31 (32.29%) female students perceived their body image as fair, good and excellent, respectively while overall 13 (13.54%) were dissatisfied with their body image. Further analysis of body image satisfaction was carried out with selected variables and association was found to be statistically non-significant with professional stream (P=0.058), native place (P=0.44), type of family (P=0.66), social caste (P=0.34), marks obtained in 12^th class (P=0.32), education of father (P=0.28), monthly family income (P=0.10), gender of sibling (P=0.70), physical activity (P=0.41), global satisfaction in life (P=0.30) and satisfaction in academic life (P=0.76). Nearly 34.37% participants attempted at changing (increase/decrease) their weight (P=0.73) during last one-year while 9.37% skipped at least one meal during last three months as a strategy for weight reduction (P=0.82).

The body image satisfaction had significant relationship with image perception (P<0.001), current general health status (P<0.001) and self weight assessment (P<0.001). Mother's education had an inverse bearing on the outcome variable (P=0.004). According to BMI nearly 11.54% girls were found to be overweight (or obese) while 29.16% were under-nourished; 26.04% had waist/hip ratio of more than 0.8 and was significantly related to body image. Nearly, 75% girls were found to be anemic but this was not statistically related to body image in the sampled population (P=0.86), Table 2.

Table 2

Body image satisfaction according to selected variables

DISCUSSION

A study was undertaken to determine body image satisfaction and perception among newly entrant girl students (17-22 years) of a professional institution. In the present study nearly 83.33% rated their perceived body image from good to excellent while overall 13.54% were dissatisfied with their image. Our study reports a relatively lower proportion of body image dissatisfaction among college going girl students in comparison with other selected studies done at international platform. The study methodology may differ but on review of literature, level of body image dissatisfaction ranged from 33% (China), 34.9% (Australia), 45% (Greece), 47.3% (Brazil), 50% (Taiwan), 56% (Norway), 29.8% and 56.7% (Turkey), 69% (European Union), and 73.3% (USA).[,11,12,15,] Probably culture, upbringing, professional stature and ethnicity may be some predominant factors behind high body image satisfaction, as another study carried out in UK also reported that Asian women were less likely to describe themselves as too fat, were less dissatisfied with their body size, and less likely to want to lose weight in comparison with white women.[19] The other possibility of low dissatisfaction could be that the first year students have just emerged from the protected environment of their family and may throw surprising results if study is repeated after few years when they are exposed to more competitive situations later in life. On the contrary, a study conducted amongst all resident medical female students in south India reported image dissatisfaction to the tune of 33.3%.[]

Similar results were observed from another study conducted in Karnataka, with 29.1% underweight girl students but only 3.2% being overweight while more than 65% perceived themselves to be either slim or thin.[21] A study carried amongst nursing students (mean BMI: 20.14) in West Bengal also revealed double burden of nutritional disorder with prevalence of faulty weight perception of 38.6% and was found to be weighted towards feeling higher weight.[] In study conducted in Delhi, half of overweight/obese youth had low body satisfaction, while one-quarter of the non-overweight youth felt the same; among overweight/obese youth, girls were more likely than boys to perceive themselves as overweight (P=0.047) and to have low body satisfaction (P=0.052).[] In Lucknow, 73.4% adolescent girls were satisfied with their body image, while 26.6% were dissatisfied.[]

In the present study (mean BMI: 20.13), nearly 15.62% perceived themselves to be overweight/obese while actually 11.54% could be grouped into this category (BMI >23 kg/m²). Similarly, 8.33% perceived themselves to be underweight/lean but infact 29.16% were found to be so (BMI <18.5 kg//m²). Students with low weight (BMI <18.5 kg/m²) had a significantly higher (85.71%) prevalence of body image satisfaction while overweight students (BMI ≤23 kg/m²) had a significantly higher (54.54%) prevalence of dissatisfaction (P<0.001). Body image satisfaction had significant relationship with BMI and waist–hip ratio in the present and was similar to as reported in other studies. Further, higher proportion of dissatisfaction was found amongst subjects with higher level of mother's education probably due to increased aspiration and expectations in life.

The burden of under-nutrition including anemia is widespread amongst Indians especially the vulnerable groups. According to community based National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3 survey, nearly 36% of women are undernourished (BMI <18.5) while the percentage of married women age 15-49 who are overweight or obese, increased from 11% in NFHS-2 (1998-99) to 15% in NFHS-3 (2005-06) and almost half of the girls in age 15-19 were undernourished. District Level Household Survey (DLHS) and Indian Council of Medical Research surveys have repeatedly shown that over 70% of pre-school children, adolescent girls and pregnant mothers are anemic.[] Akin to this observation, our study also reflected similar situation with 75% of girls being anemic who need adequate and priority management. Authors acknowledges some of the limitations of our study such as small sample size; possibility of under-reporting; non-use of scales like visual analog, figure rating or contour drawing comparison scale etc. Similar studies may be undertaken at other centers in India to determine frequency/variations/trends overtime with inclusion of male member of society also.

To conclude, high body image satisfaction is reported in this study and found to be significantly related to anthropometric measurements. On an encouraging note, this level needs to be preserved for overall mental and healthy development of students. Proactive preventive measures could be initiated in institutions on personality development, acceptance of self and individual differences while maintaining optimum weight and active life style.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Vice-Chancellor and Director, University of Health Sciences, Rohtak, India.

Footnotes

Source of Support: Nil

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

REFERENCES

Abstract

The current study examines how body satisfaction of pregnant women compares to that of nonpregnant women. The sample included 68 pregnant and 927 nonpregnant young women who participated in a population-based longitudinal study examining eating and weight concerns in young adults. Body satisfaction was assessed using a 10-item modified version of the Body Shape Satisfaction Scale. The longitudinal design allowed for the assessment of body satisfaction among women both prior to and during their pregnancy. Mean body satisfaction was higher in pregnant women (32.6, 95% CI: 30.7–34.5) than nonpregnant women (29.6, 95% CI: 29.1–30.1) with moderate effect size 0.32, after adjusting for body satisfaction and body mass index prior to pregnancy, indicating that pregnant women experienced a significant increase in body satisfaction from the time prior to their pregnancy (p = .003) despite weight gain. These findings have important implications for clinicians delivering weight-related messages to women during pregnancy.

Negative body image is pervasive among women. High levels of body dissatisfaction are primarily attributed to the existence of social pressures regarding thinness. It has been theorized that culturally defined roles may have an impact on body satisfaction, with pressure to achieve a culturally ideal shape or figure being more important in some social roles than others (). Pregnancy is a period in women’s lives when the role of a woman’s body changes dramatically. To date, research examining body image during pregnancy indicates wide variation in women’s responses to the physical changes that accompany pregnancy, with reactions ranging from distress to neutral to liberation (; Fairburn & Welch, 1990; ). suggest that because pregnancy represents the start of a new role for women, a role that emphasizes the importance of reproduction over culturally-defined beauty, women are likely to experience unchanged or even improved body image during pregnancy. This notion is supported by other studies (; ; ), in which pregnant women were found to adjust to changes in their body without a negative impact on their body image. Early qualitative research by provides context to this adjustment process, noting that women experience the physical changes related to pregnancy as “transient” and “unique to the childbearing experience”, allowing them to transition through these changes without distress.

In contrast, some research suggests that the weight gain and body shape changes caused by pregnancy can result in a decline in body satisfaction among some women. For example, found that women experienced a significant decline in body satisfaction from pre-pregnancy to early pregnancy. Additionally, in a retrospective study of 50 pregnant women, conducted by Fairburn and Welch (1990), about half of the women reported feeling distress about their weight gain, while the other half did not experience weight concerns.

From this literature, conclusions about the impact of pregnancy on a women’s body satisfaction are difficult to make. The varied findings may reflect the use of different study designs, as well as different measures of body image, making direct comparisons across studies difficult. Further, study designs that utilized a retrospective report of pre-pregnancy body satisfaction may be biased. For example, it is possible that the experience of pregnancy changes the way a women recalls and reports her body satisfaction during the time period in her life before she was pregnant. A prospective study with recruitment of subjects prior to pregnancy has the potential to clarify the changes in body satisfaction that are brought on by the pregnancy experience.

The current study expands upon the existing literature by examining body satisfaction during pregnancy using a prospective, community-based study design. The primary aim of the current research study is to examine how the body satisfaction of pregnant women compares to that of nonpregnant women. Understanding how pregnancy may affect women’s body satisfaction is of particular importance because it is known that pregnant women who experience negative body satisfaction are more likely to engage in unhealthy eating, dieting, fasting and purging behaviors as compared to those who are satisfied with their bodies (). The use of these behaviors has been linked to inadequate weight gain, premature delivery, low infant birth weight, and in extreme cases, maternal and fetal death (; ; ). Further, the information to be gleaned from this study will provide clinicians with an improved understanding of how their pregnant patients experience their bodies during pregnancy, thereby allowing them to more appropriately tailor weight-related messages to these women.

Method

Participants and Study Design

Data for this analysis were drawn from the second and third waves of Project EAT, a longitudinal study designed to examine weight-related issues in adolescents and young adults. The sample for the current study (before exclusions) includes 1083 female participants (mean age: 25.3, range 19.8–31.2) who responded to 5- and 10-year follow-up surveys. All study protocols were approved by the University of Minnesota’s Institutional Review Board Human Subjects Committee. Details on the study design and study population have been previously described (; ; )

Measures

Pregnancy was assessed with the question, “If you are a female, are you currently pregnant or breastfeeding? Response options included no, yes-pregnant, and yes-breastfeeding. Body satisfaction was assessed with a modified version of the Body Shape Satisfaction Scale () and included 10 items assessing satisfaction with different body parts (e.g., height, weight, stomach, and hips), with five Likert response categories ranging from very dissatisfied to very satisfied (Cronbach's α = .93; test–retest r = .89). Responses to these items were summed and the body satisfaction scale ranged from 10–50 with higher scores indicating more satisfaction. Weight status was assessed using self-reported height and weight, from which body mass index (BMI, kg/m²) was calculated. Self-report of height and weight were validated in a subsample of 62 female study participants for whom height and weight measurements were completed by trained research staff. Results showed high correlations between self-reported BMI and measured BMI among females (r = .98). Relationship status was assessed with the following question: “What is your relationship status? (Mark one.)”. Response categories included single or casually dating, committed dating relationship or engaged, married, same sex domestic partner, separated or divorced, and widowed. Number of children was assessed with the following question, “How many children do you have (including step-children or adopted children)?”. Response categories included: none, one, two, and three or more.

Gender, race, and socioeconomic status (SES) were assessed by self-report at baseline. Five levels of SES were based primarily on the highest educational level completed by either parent for most respondents (). Parental SES was utilized given that many individuals do not complete their education before their mid or later twenties therefore making widely used indicators of socioeconomic status such as education and income are likely poor measures of SES for young people ().

Data Analysis

Of the 1083 women who participated in Project EAT at Time 2 and 3, 1070 responded to the pregnancy question. Women who responded that they were breastfeeding (n = 34) were excluded from the current analysis and women who, at Time 2, were either pregnant, breastfeeding or missing on these questions (n = 48) were also excluded, leaving 995 women in the analytic sample. Descriptive characteristics of the pregnant and nonpregnant women were summarized with proportions. Chi-square tests were used to test for differences in these characteristics between the two groups and Cramer’s Phi is presented as the effect size. Comparisons of mean body satisfaction between pregnant and nonpregnant women were performed using multiple linear regression of body satisfaction on current pregnancy status controlling for age, race, SES, relationship status, an indicator of whether the woman already had children, as well as Time 2 BMI and body satisfaction. The measurements of BMI and body satisfaction at Time 2 were included as covariates in order to isolate the potential effect of current pregnancy status on change in body satisfaction. Regression adjusted mean body satisfaction and 95% confidence intervals are presented for pregnant and nonpregnant women with a p-value testing for the difference and Cohen’s d calculated for the effect size. We also fit a model that additionally included an interaction between already having children and currently being pregnant in order to assess if the relationship between pregnancy and body satisfaction differed by parental status. All analyses were performed in SAS 9.2.

Multiple imputation was implemented in order to avoid deleting women with partially missing covariates (approximately 9% of the sample). Fifty complete datasets were generated with SAS PROC MI and multiple regression results were analyzed using Proc MIANALYZE which incorporates variability due to random imputation. Because attrition from the Time 3 sample did not occur at random, in all analyses, the data were weighted using the response propensity method (Little, 1986). The weighting method resulted in estimates representative of the demographic make-up of the original school-based sample, thereby allowing results to be more fully generalizable to the population of young people in this area.

Results

Sample Characteristics

At Time 3, 6.8% (n = 68) of women reported being pregnant. Pregnant women were more likely to be married (Cramer’s ϕ effect size (ES) = .22, p < .001), and of low socioeconomic status (ES = .18, p < .001) than nonpregnant women. Additionally, women who were currently pregnant were more likely than nonpregnant women to already have at least one other child at home (ES = .15, p < .001). The average BMI for nonpregnant women was 26.0 (SD = 6.4) and for pregnant women was 27.4 (SD = 6.7), but the difference was not statistically significant (p = .08) (Table 1). However, the mean change in BMI from Time 2 for nonpregnant women was 2.03 (SD = 3.68, 95% CI : 1.79–2.28) and for pregnant women was 3.64 (SD = 4.44, 95% CI: 2.54–4.74), indicating that the pregnant women did experience a greater increase in BMI than their nonpregnant counterparts over the 5 years.

Table 1

Descriptive characteristics of the currently pregnant and nonpregnant sample (n = 995)^a

Body Satisfaction Scale Questionnaire

Mean Body Satisfaction During Pregnancy

The adjusted mean body satisfaction for the sample of pregnant women at Time 3 was 32.6 (95% CI: 30.7–34.5), which was significantly higher (p = .003) than nonpregnant women’s mean body satisfaction of 29.6 (95% CI: 29.1–30.1). This difference represents an effect size of .32 (Cohen’s d effect size = [(32.6−29.6)/9.4] where 9.4 is the standard deviation of body satisfaction across the sample). As body satisfaction at Time 2 was included as a covariate in the regression model, these results imply a significantly larger increase in body satisfaction since Time 2 for women who are currently pregnant compared to those who are not. In order to explore whether the association between pregnancy and body satisfaction differed for women who already had a child, a secondary analysis was conducted. This test of interaction was nonsignificant (p = .64), indicating that body satisfaction improvement in body satisfaction does not differ between first time mothers and women who have other children at home.

Discussion

During pregnancy women experience a number of substantial physical changes, including weight gain. Results from the current study suggest that regardless of these physical changes, pregnant women have significantly higher body satisfaction than their nonpregnant counterparts. This finding, which aligns with previous research (; ; ), lends support to the idea that a women’s body image is more complex than can be explained solely by a discrepancy from a culturally ideal shape or weight. Research by Malloy and Herzberg (1998) offers a possible explanation indicating that women in some social roles are more protected from negative body image. Malloy and Herzberg posit that this is due to the fact that an individual’s judgment of their body is a reflection of what is desirable within their particular cultural or social group. Along these lines, the increase in body satisfaction seen during pregnancy among the young women in the present study could be indicative of these women taking on a new social role in which they are more protected from the pressure to achieve an ideal body shape or size. While future research is needed to more fully understand the increase in body satisfaction seen during pregnancy, these findings, in combination with Molloy and Herzberg’s research on social roles, suggest that interventions aimed at diversifying young women’s definition of their social role, as well as helping to direct their attention toward the functionality of their bodies, may have the potential to lead to improvements in overall body satisfaction during many periods in life in addition to pregnancy.

As in the current study, a small number of other studies have indicated that women experience higher body satisfaction during their pregnancy as compared to pre-pregnancy (Boscagalia et al., 2003; ; Fairburn & Welch, 1990). The current study extends extant literature by assessing a woman’s body satisfaction both prior to and during her pregnancy through the use of a prospective study design. The present findings, in conjunction with previous research, suggest that there is something about the experience of being pregnant that increases a women’s satisfaction with her physical appearance and indicates that despite the weight gain and physical changes that accompany pregnancy, women are able to navigate this transition in a positive way.

Strengths and limitations of the current study need to be taken into account in interpreting the findings. The prospective nature of the study design allowed us to examine a woman’s body satisfaction prior to her pregnancy without concern that her current pregnancy might alter the way she remembered her former body satisfaction. To our knowledge this is the only prospective study that has examined associations between pregnancy and changes in body satisfaction. Additionally, the use of population-based recruitment enhances the generalizability of our study results to other populations of young adult women. However, because research related to pregnancy was not an initial aim of the overall study our assessment of pregnancy is somewhat limited. We did not assess stage of pregnancy at the time of survey completion. Because a woman’s shape and weight changes differently at different points throughout her pregnancy, information about the gestational stage of her pregnancy at the time she was surveyed would have added more depth to our analysis. Finally, given the rapid physical changes that occur during and following pregnancy, future research with more frequent points of data collection, both prior to, during and following pregnancy, is warranted.

Conclusions

Overall, this study found evidence for improved body satisfaction during pregnancy, despite probable changes in body shape and size. These findings have important implications for clinicians working with women during pregnancy. While weight gain during pregnancy has recently received a great deal of attention within the scientific community (; ; ) related closely to the United States Institute of Medicine’s release of new guidelines for weight gain during pregnancy (Rasmussen & Yaktine, 2009) there is a dearth of literature examining the impact of weight gain counseling by clinicians for pregnant women. Findings from the current study suggest the importance of finding a balance between helping women to achieve weight gain within an appropriate range, while delivering weight related messages in a way that helps to maintain the improved body satisfaction women may experience during pregnancy. Future research aimed at exploring how clinicians can best achieve this delicate balance within the context of prenatal weight gain counseling is warranted. More broadly, the current findings also demonstrate the need to investigate the importance of female social roles in the development of women’s body satisfaction. Specifically, the design and analysis of interventions aimed at encouraging young women to challenge the focus on weight and shape within their social role and to examine how their body contributes to this role in ways beyond thinness and beauty should be considered.

Acknowledgments

The project described was supported by Grant Number R01HL084064 from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (D Neumark-Sztainer PI). Katie Loth’s time was supported in part by the Adolescent Health Protection Program (School of Nursing, University of Minnesota) grant number T01-DP000112 (L Bearinger PI) from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Hearth, Lung, and Blood Institute, the National Institutes of Health, or the CDC.

Footnotes

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